White House photo by Eric Draper
George W. Bush An Historical Overview of His First Term
By David Boyajian, Domestic Affairs Editor
Throughout the past six and a half years, George Walker Bush has led the United States though some of its darkest days. A president leading the free world into a new millennium, Bush has created a legacy that many historians and scholars will argue over for years to come. Though constantly berated with criticism and disdain, George W. Bush’s tenure in office will be seen as a time of great aspiration. While many of his administration’s policies have all but failed and his approval ratings have, at times, been the lowest of any other president, Bush will be remembered as an ambitious leader, mired with controversy, who impacted the future of the United States for generations.
The Election of 2000: A New Millennium, A New Leader
January 21st, 2001 was a cold and raw day in Washington, D.C. [i] The rain from the previous night had carried over, soaking the streets and dampening the thousands traveling from across the world to witness the dénouement of one President and the inauguration of another.
William Jefferson Clinton, for the first time in eight years, was no longer president. Accompanied by his wife, the newly elected Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton, and their daughter Chelsea, Clinton boarded a government aircraft at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. After leaving a confidential hand written letter on his desk in the Oval Office for his successor, [ii] the man from Hope, Arkansas left Washington.
George W. Bush was now President, winning one of the most competitive, controversial, and expensive elections that the nation had ever experienced. The Election of 2000 was a turning point in American history, ushering in a new millennium and a new leader. Running against the former Texas governor was the then current Vice President, Albert Gore. Gore, who easily won the Democratic nomination, defeating basketball star and New Jersey Senator William “Bill” Bradley, was seen as a continuation of the Clinton administration’s eight years in office. Bush, on the other hand, had a much more difficult road to receiving his party’s nomination.
Campaigning against Bush for the Republican ticket was Arizona Senator John McCain, businessman Steve Forbes, Utah Senator Orin Hatch, and former ambassador Alan Keyes. McCain, a Vietnam War veteran and prisoner of war at the notorious ‘Hanoi Hilton,’ won a key victory in the New Hampshire primary, giving him an early lead and surge in campaign contributions. The breakthrough for the Bush campaign, however, came in the form of South Carolina.
In a brutal smear campaign waged throughout the ‘Palmetto State,’ McCain was lambasted as rumors spread across the state labeling him as pro-homosexual. It was also said that he had fathered an illegitimate African-American child. Bush supporters rampantly hit the phones, calling conservatives across the state to inform likely voters that the Senator had fathered a “black child.” [iii] McCain, who in reality adopted the child from an orphanage run by Mother Theresa in Bangladesh, could not recover from the attack. Though never confirmed, the vicious attack against Senator McCain was allegedly orchestrated by a little known campaign strategist named Karl Rove. [iv] After the South Carolina primary, Senator John McCain announced that he was dropping out of the race during a speech at the Grand Canyon.
The 2000 Republican National Convention was held in Philadelphia. Bush had chosen former Defense Secretary and longtime compatriot of his father, Richard ‘Dick’ Cheney to become his nomination for Vice President. Cheney, who at the time was the current Chief Executive Officer of Halliburton Energy, resigned to run as George W. Bush’s second in command.
At the Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, Gore was marauded by the media for his passionate kiss to his wife ‘Tipper’ in front of a worldwide audience, while the Bush campaign sold their candidate as a compassionate and practical conservative willing to take on the challenges of a new decade.
As the summer sun set and the cool winds of autumn rushed through the small towns and campaign stops across the country, the race for President became hotter than ever. As Gore and Bush paraded their credentials across America, third party candidate Ralph Nader decided to enter the Presidential race. Nader, a longtime author and activist of consumer rights and environmentalism started appealing to many voters turned off by Bush’s right wing outreach and Gore’s stolid disposition. In a move, again allegedly orchestrated by Rove, Republican organizations bought advertising time in key swing states to campaign for Nader, hoping that likely Democrats would vote for Nader instead of Gore [v] .
Throughout the campaign, Bush continued to appeal to voters by harping on a high sense of morality that many believed Gore did not possess in the wake of the Clinton sex scandals and the subsequent impeachment trial. While debating Vice President Gore at Wake Forest University, Bush, who came under criticism for his lack of experience in international diplomacy, gained credibility by explaining, “I don't think our troops ought to be used for what's called nation-building.” [vi] As the election reached its final days, both candidates were neck and neck, campaigning across the country and trying to pick up last minute votes.
November 7th, 2000 was Election Day, and voters from across the nation made their way into polling stations, casting their ballot for the next President of the United States. As the vote tallies came in, Gore had picked up key wins in New York, California, and Michigan, while Bush had won Texas, Ohio, and virtually all southern states. At the end of the night the news media had proclaimed Gore the winner with 255 electoral votes as opposed to the 246 Bush had earned, though three states New Mexico, carrying five electoral votes, Oregon, carrying seven votes, and Florida, carrying twenty-five, were yet to be decided. Mathematically whoever was proclaimed the winner in Florida would be declared the winner of the election. The nation’s course for the next four years was in the hands of The Sunshine State.
After a careful vote tally, Bush was proclaimed the winner. In response, Gore called Bush to concede defeat, but then retracted his concession merely a few hours later when he learned how close the election truly was. Due to the narrow margin of victory, the state of Florida began a mandatory recount of all tallied votes. [vii] Both sides were gearing up for a heavy legal battle, hiring notable politicians and lawyers to aid their cases. The Bush campaign soon filed suit to count the disputed ballots by hand.
As the hand counting begun, it became clear that many voters were deceived in the voting process, casting their ballot for Reform candidate, Pat Buchanan, instead of Gore. It was now the prerogative of those recounting the ballots to determine which candidate the voter intended to cast their ballot for, as “Hanging chad” fever swept the nation.
The entire recount procedure came to a halt at the discretion of the Supreme Court. During the recount, the Bush legal team had filed suit to stop the recount and discontinue any further extensions of ballot tallying. In the landmark case, Bush v. Gore, the high court deemed any extension of vote counting to be unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment, [viii] thus awarding Florida to George W. Bush and proclaiming him the winner of the campaign.
The election of 2000 formally ended with the Bush v. Gore decision, Bush had won and although he had received more of the popular vote, Gore was defeated. The court ruled strictly down party lines in the 5-4 judgment, [ix] making the case even more controversial. Nevertheless, George W. Bush became the 43rd President of the United States.
When the Bush motorcade made its way down Pennsylvania Avenue that gray afternoon in January, the Presidency was mired with controversy. If George W. Bush’s tenure in office began and then ended on his inauguration day, he would have already been known as one of the most notorious presidents to take office.
The election of 2000 will be seen as a campaign of great rivalry and cutthroat competition. Slanderous tactics and divisive actions used by the Bush camp changed the way Americans saw their newly elected President. Elected by the skin of his own teeth, George W. Bush began his presidency on an incredibly controversial note, a sentiment that would continue to plague him throughout the remainder of his first term. Berated by criticism and surrounded by rumors that he had cheated his way into office, Bush received an approval rating that was relatively low from the start. [x] It wouldn’t be until a few months later, until an act of terror shocked the world, that his tenure in office would be defined.
The September 10th Presidency
As the Bush administration began, much skepticism was felt across the world due to the chaotic and controversial election. Already, the administration had a chip on its shoulder without passing any legislation or working on a single issue.
The main topics circling around Bush’s first eight months in office were North Korea and stem cells. During the hot summers of Texas, Bush flew advisors down to his Crawford, Texas ranch, the new White House away from Washington. [xi] While Bush failed at achieving a resolution with North Korea, a move that would continue to linger over the administration throughout the presidency, Bush proclaimed that the federal government would fund stem cell research that only uses human embryos that have already been destroyed [xii] .
Bush also began campaigning for his No Child Left Behind Act, a comprehensive and ambitious overhaul of the education system in America; schools would have to fulfill government regulated standards through comprehensive exams administered to students. Passed in early 2002, the bill received skepticism from the public, but was supported by Democrats such as Senator Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts. [xiii]
Often criticized during the election of 2000 for being too naïve and unskilled in regards to diplomacy, Bush appointed retired General Colin Powell as Secretary of State, and highly regarded academic Condoleezza Rice as National Security Advisor. These moves helped fix the tension caused when an American spy plane crashed in Chinese territory, creating a brief international standoff between the two nations. [xiv] Both appointments were also major advancements for African-Americans, a move that will be remembered very favorably on the administration.
By the end of the first eight months of the Bush Presidency, the administration had taken an ambitious stance with regards to education, healthcare, and foreign policy. Though the power in Congress shifted when Republican Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont chose to leave the party to become an Independent, [xv] the beginning of George W. Bush’s tenure in office was relatively quiet. With roughly half of Americans approving his job in office, the administration began focusing on trying to fix healthcare, change social security, and continue tax reforms for businesses.
A New Day of Infamy
It was approximately 6:45 am when President Bush, surrounded by his security detail and aids, began his daily morning jog. [xvi] Bush, who was in Sarasota, Florida, was planning to attend Emma E. Booker Elementary School, interacting with young children while continuing to sell his ‘No Child Left Behind’ policies to the American public. [xvii] As the Presidential motorcade reached the school close to 8:45 am, Bush and White House Chief of Staff, Andrew Card, were informed by Karl Rove that a small twin-engine aircraft had crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City. [xviii] After speaking with National Security Advisor, Condoleezza Rice, who was monitoring the unfolding situation back at the White House, Bush was then informed that the plane was a commercial airliner. Still worried by the situation, President Bush entered the school full of reporters and began reading to second graders in a crowded classroom. [xix]
As Bush continued to read with the students, Card entered the room at 9:05 am, whispering to the President, “A second plane hit the second tower. America is under attack” [xx] In that single instant Bush’s entire presidency was transformed. Everything the administration was working to achieve immediately took a backseat when the World Trade Center horrifically burned on a beautiful September morning in New York.
President Bush remained in the classroom, shaken but not mortified by Card’s message. Wanting to portray an aura of confidence he chose not to immediately leave the school or act drastically. After a period of five minutes, Bush left the room, returning to the holding room where his staff had been situated. Here, he was briefed by his staff, and spoke to Vice President Cheney, Condoleezza Rice, New York Governor George Pataki, and FBI Director Robert Mueller. [xxi]
After making a brief statement to the press, Bush’s motorcade left the school at 9:35 am and arrived at the airport approximately ten minutes later. During the ride to the airport, Bush learned of the apparent attack on the Pentagon.In a conversation with the Vice President, Cheney told Bush, “We’re at war and somebody is going to pay.” [xxii]
As President Bush boarded Air Force One in route to an unknown location, back in Washington, the White House was evacuated and all levels of government were placed on high alert. While in the air, Bush learned of the final high jacked airplane, United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark. Wanting to prevent further devastation to the United States, Bush gave the orders to engage the flight, and take the airplane down if necessary. [xxiii] This did not occur as an in-flight revolt took the plane down, crashing in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. That evening following the attacks, Bush declared a worldwide war on terror, formally shaping the course of the nation and the legacy of his presidency.
Soon after the attacks, a period a nationwide patriotism swept across the country. More people volunteered their time to community organizations, and President Bush’s approval rating reached 90%, [xxiv] the highest rating in the history of the United States. For the moment, George W. Bush was the patriotic figurehead of a nation in mourning. While often criticized for his lack of a quick response after learning of the attacks, Bush stayed calm and collected under heavy fire.
The period of mourning after September 11th was strongly helped by the encouragement to continue normal duties by the Bush administration. Throwing the first pitch of the 2001 World Series at Yankee Stadium, Bush received a standing ovation while captivating the hearts of a nation. Appearing as a leader with great composure and strength, George W. Bush emerged out of the ruins of the Twin Towers as the clear leader of the American people. For a moment, his controversial election victory and decisive campaign tactics were forgotten. The United States had been attacked, but was far from broken; Americans rallied around their president more than at any other time in American history.
Bush, determined never to allow the apparent lapse of government intelligence in the time leading up to the attacks happen again, began to create a new cabinet level bureau, The Department of Homeland Security. By continuing to put his own touch on American history, Bush organized the department by combining many other bureaucracies under one new figurehead. Appointed to serve as the inaugural secretary of the administration was former Pennsylvania Governor, Tom Ridge, who implemented the now infamous color-coded alert system.
In addition to creating the new Department of Homeland Security, the Bush administration presided over the passage of the now infamous USA PATRIOT Act. Created within the first 50 days after the terrorist attacks, the Patriot Act expanded the authority of the government and law enforcement to fight future acts of terrorism. Many of the provisions included in the new law allowed for clear violations of civil liberties. Constantly criticized by many advocacy groups, the Patriot Act is just one of many controversial decisions made under the Bush administration.
A new era of terror was born when the Twin Towers collapsed, and an administration that had centered its time on education and tax reform was now attentively focused on defeating those responsible for the attacks. Thousands of miles away, the relatively unknown nation of Afghanistan was about to be rocked.
Afghanistan: Osama Bin Laden, Al Qaeda, the Taliban
Prior to the events of September 11th, many Americans had never heard of the small nation of Afghanistan. Boarded by Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, the country had widely been forgotten by the western world. Following the 1979 Soviet invasion, the nation had been in relative disarray until a religious movement captured the nation and installed the Taliban government. [xxv]
Literally translating to the “seekers of knowledge,” [xxvi] the Taliban was a Sunni Islam government that based their teachings and rulings around the Qur’an. Known for their brutal treatment of women, the government received media attention in the buildup to September 11th when they destroyed ancient Buddhist icons, an act widely condemned by the United Nations and the west. [xxvii] A safe haven for the terror network, Al Qaeda, another group widely unheard of, Afghanistan aided the rise of the organization and was widely seen as a key supporter of the September 11th attacks.
Almost immediately following 9/11, the Bush administration began making plans on who and when to attack in retribution. A President with nearly nine out of every ten Americans behind him, George W. Bush initiated Operation Enduring Freedom with the support of NATO and the Afghan Northern Alliance, a military cell inside the country who fought against the Taliban. [xxviii]
Initially beginning with aerial bombings across the nation and specifically in the capital of Kabul, American and British forces soon took control of the country while overthrowing the Taliban. The war in Afghanistan was relatively painless for American troops; though many died, the battles were nearly always won by the collation forces. Still, the coalition failed to capture Osama Bin Laden, the apparent mastermind of the terrorist attacks. Seen on videotaped footage broadcast on the Islamic network, Al-Jazeera, Bin Laden was seen mocking the president and boasting his pleasure with the hijackers. Calling for a Jihad, or ‘Holy Struggle,’ against the United States, Bin Laden was now the new figurehead of the war against terror, yet he was unable to be captured. [xxix]
Nearly three months following the September 11th attacks, George W. Bush still continued to receive approval by the vast majority of the American people. [xxx] A president caught off guard by an act of terror, Bush had now attacked the nation responsible for the incident and begun his war on terror. Now seen as a strong-willed leader ready to protect America from the newly recognized Al Qaeda and the now infamous Osama Bin Laden, Bush seemed ready to save the country from other acts of terror. For the moment, George W. Bush could hardly do anything wrong: healing a nation after it had been brutally ambushed, creating safeguards that such actions never happen again, and serving retribution for those responsible. The support of the American people was solidly behind him and his administration.
Following the relative success of the Afghanistan mission and accruing much ‘political capital,’ a term widely used by Bush, the midterm elections of 2002 began with strong feelings of support for the Republican Party. Campaigning from state to state, the now popular Bush vouched for many conservative candidates for office. While helping the likes of Saxby Chambles of Georgia and John Sununu of New Hampshire, Bush helped shift the power in the Senate back to his party. [xxxi] George W. Bush could do no wrong and now had brought the Republican Party both the executive branch and half of the legislature.
A Second Invasion of the Persian Gulf
As thousands of elected officials, dignitaries, and press bustled their way into the United States Capital on a cold January evening in 2002, President Bush was preparing to give his second State of the Union address to the American public. Following the wake of September 11th and the invasion of Afghanistan, Bush planed to speak about global terrorism and additional nations perceived to be harboring such organizations. The 2002 State of the Union was a speech that will forever be linked to Bush’s legacy and controversial status. Outlining what has come to be seen as the President’s more divisive moves while in office, he described the so-called ‘Axis of Evil:’Iran, Iraq, and orth Korea, which he accused of being sponsors of terrorism. [xxxii]
The following year, the Bush administration continued to pressure international organizations, such as the United Nations, by arguing that the nation of Iraq was in violation of Security Council resolutions and was developing weapons of mass destruction. While sending diplomat Hans Blix, the United Nations attempted to investigate the claims, but ended their search with inconclusive results. [xxxiii] In the meantime, the Bush administration was slowly but surely building its rationale: Iraq was developing weapons and their brutal dictator, Saddam Hussein, needed to be stopped.
Following the relatively successful invasion and playing off the fears of many Americans, the administration was able to bring the domestic press in line with Bush’s beliefs, furthering the growing feeling nationwide that Iraq’s development program absolutely had to be halted. While some were very skeptical of such measures, the ability of the President to ‘sell’ an attack to the American people proved to both positively and negatively impact his legacy. Though in the years following the invasion Bush has come under harsh criticism for his management and intelligence in the prewar buildup, the success of getting the majority of the American people, including Congress, on board with his plans will be seen as an incredibly astute act.
Secretary of State Colin Powell, a former decorated General well-liked throughout America, presented American intelligence to the Security Council arguing that Iraq possessed and was creating weapons of mass destruction. [xxxiv] The administration’s claims that the nation was developing weapons were strongly aided by Powell’s perceived honesty and ability to persuade.
While many will perceive both Secretary Powell and Bush negatively for their apparent lack of intelligence and honesty in the buildup to an invasion of Iraq, both acted with strong ambition to oust a brutal dictator and help install democracy in Iraq. Though their ambitions and ideals may have been well devised, the legacy of Bush and Powell was strongly affected by the constant mismanagement and continual disagreement on the war effort.
Constant Mismanagement
As the warplanes flew over Baghdad, releasing their heavy bombs and artillery, a new chapter began in the history of the United States. Using the ‘Shock and Awe’ treatment, fighter jets bombarded the nation of Iraq with amazing precision and militaristic strength. [xxxv] Unsupported by the United Nations, France, Russia, and China, Bush had hoped to topple the Hussein administration, restore order to the nation, and leave peacefully. [xxxvi] Unfortunately, only one of these goals would soon be accomplished.
After surrounding the capital, the American troops soon moved into Baghdad, toppling the Hussein administration and controlling the city. Encountering small resistance to Hussein’s army, the United States soon reached all major cities and had relative control over the country. What the Americans could not control, however, was the Iraqi people, constantly looting the streets and storefronts. Citizens continued to choaticlly storm through the country. Images of Iraqis looting their national museum, destroying ancient artifacts and memorabilia were broadcast to a horrified public worldwide. [xxxvii]
The American and British troops were unable to restore order to Iraq, and the looting and domestic street wars continued. Though these horrific actions were still plaguing the nation, Bush boarded the U.S.S. Abraham Lincoln, declaring an end to major combat with the now infamous words: ‘Mission Accomplished.’ [xxxviii] While hoping to receive a great photo opportunity onboard the Abraham Lincoln, Bush’s declaration proved to be a major disaster, as thousands of American troops continued to lose their lives while the domestic warfare amongst the Iraqis only continued to escalate.
Through the remainder of his first term in office, Bush would continue to be plagued by the Iraq War. With constant mismanagement and the increasing casualty rate, Bush’s job approval rating dropped from nearly 90% after September 11th to roughly 70% by the end of 2002 and then to almost 50% by September of 2004. [xxxix] A bastion of conservatism and the newly crowned ‘boy wonder’ of the Republican Party, Bush had plummeted in support in only three years.
The constant mismanagement of the Iraq War is what history will remember of Bush’s first term. Through their constant insistence that the nation possessed weapons of mass destruction, the administration brought the United States into battle without proper preparation or supplies. By the opinion of many, the war has been and continues to be a complete failure. It is hard to imagine how the nation of Iraq truly presented a threat to the United States and democracy as a whole. While American troops were tied down in harsh fighting across Iraq, Bush should have instead focused their attention on finishing the Afghanistan mission and assuring the international community that nations such as Iran would never possess nuclear technology, mounting yet another failure on the shoulders of the Bush administration.
Iraq continues shape Bush’s legacy as a ‘war president,’ one that many throughout the country disapprove of. While George W. Bush entered office as one of the most controversial leaders America had encountered, he hardly helped his image by entering the country into a war that continued to lose support and mount casualties. Entering the war without complete international support, Bush entered the 2004 election as a leader with a shrinking support-base and nearly half of America against him.
The Election of 2004
President George W. Bush entered the Election of 2004 as not only the current leader of the United States, but the automatic recipient of the Republican nomination. Against Bush were Democrats Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts, former Vermont Governor Howard Dean, and Senator John Edwards of North Carolina. After an initial surge and groundbreaking internet fundraising tactics for Dean, an overly dramatic campaign speech in Iowa led to his downfall. [xl] With Dean out of the race, the Democrats shifted their attention to Kerry, a seasoned war veteran and recipient of the Purple Heart.
Choosing Edwards as his running mate, the Democrats hit the campaign trail in the summer of 2004. Running against a relatively unpopular president crippled by an unfavorable war and a weak economy, the Kerry campaign should have had little resistance in defeating the Republican ticket of 2004.
On the contrary, the Bush/Cheney political machine would settle for nothing less than perfection. With the help of advisors Matthew Dowd and Mark McKinnon, the Bush campaign devised revolutionary tactics aimed at focusing their attention at those more likely to vote for the president, while the Kerry campaign unsuccessfully attempted an approach based on trying to convert voters who were either undecided or already more conservative [xli] . Advertising on television shows proven by heavy research to appeal to conservatives more than liberals, the Bush campaign strategically focused their attention to jostle a right-wing audience while the Kerry campaign merely advertised on programs that they felt had a large array of viewers. [xlii]
Labeling Kerry as a ‘flip-flopper,’ the Bush campaign marauded Senator Kerry through heavy advertising, lambasting him as dishonest and unconnected with the American public. Using the Karl Rove strategy of turning a perceived weakness into a strength, the Bush campaign used Kerry’s military duties in Vietnam to their advantage. [xliii] Harping that the Senator continued to change his stances on many issues, including the Vietnam War, the Bush team and the ‘Swift Boat Veterans for Truth,’ an organization aimed at exposing Kerry’s fraudulent merits, attacked the Massachusetts politician and successfully sold him to the American public as someone ‘unfit for duty.’ [xliv]
Using these tactics, Bush was re-elected President, and as award winning author Ron Fournier explains in his bestselling book, Applebee’s’ America, “George Walker Bush won reelection in 2004 even though a majority of Americans questioned his rationale for invading Iraq, fretted about the economy, felt the nation was headed in the wrong direction and favored Democrat John Kerry on education, health care, jobs, Social Security, and most other policies.” [xlv]
In another closely held election, Bush emerged victorious by winning the electoral votes of Ohio. President George W. Bush became America’s second two-term President in a row, solidifying his legacy as a leader who would shape the future of the country for generations. He came away from the Election of 2004 as a fighter able to take the most unpopular and disliked policies and use them to his advantage. With an unpopular war being waged in the Middle East, Bush took the oath of office on yet another cold January morning, only to continue the controversies and mismanagement of his office.
Conclusion
For the first time since the Election of 1888, George W. Bush was elected President of the United States while losing the popular vote. Defeating Vice President Al Gore in one of the mostly hotly contested races in recent memory, Bush’s first term was marked with many landmark events that impacted and continue to affect the United States in many ways. As the president during the September 11th tragedies, Bush, who received the highest job approval rating in history, embarked on an ambitious goal to destroy global terrorism at its roots. While the initial invasion of Afghanistan was largely supported domestically and internationally, the invasion of Iraq was an issue plaguing Bush’s first term and will continue to affect his presidency in its second.
While implementing many successful policies throughout his first term, such as the No Child Left Behind Act, Bush will mainly been seen as a leader in a time of war and conflict. Taking on the challenges of a new century and millennium, George W. Bush led America, though not without controversy, into its future. A President whose impact on history will be felt far greater than his predecessor or his father, Bush’s tenure in office has been a time of great change for the United States.
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[i] http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/01/21/inaugural.wrap/index.html
[ii] http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/01/21/inaugural.wrap/index.html
[iii] http://www.boston.com/news/politics/president/articles/2004/03/21/the_anatomy_of_a_smear_campaign/
[iv] http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/02/10/campaign.wrap/
[v] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20001027/aponline115918_000.htm
[vi] http://www.debates.org/pages/trans2000b.html
[vii] Florida State Code Ch. 102.166 Part 5
[viii] http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=00-949
[ix] http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=00-949
[x] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2005/04/25/GR2005042500945.html
[xi] http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/briefings/20010809.html
[xii] http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/08/20010809-2.html
[xiii] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2007/03/15/DI2007031501599.html
[xiv] http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/03/22/us.china/index.html
[xv] http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/05/24/jeffords.senate/
[xvi] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 1
[xvii] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 35
[xviii] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 35
[xix] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 35
[xx] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 38
[xxi] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 39
[xxii] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 39
[xxiii] The 9/11 Commission, Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States . 2004. Page 41
[xxiv] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2005/04/25/GR2005042500945.html
[xxv] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/83854.stm
[xxvi] http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,175986-2,00.html
[xxvii] http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/archaeology/2001-03-22-afghan-buddhas.htm
[xxviii] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1563722.stm
[xxix] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2827261.stm
[xxx] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2005/04/25/GR2005042500945.html
[xxxi] http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/11/06/elec02.main.day/
[xxxii] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1935644.stm
[xxxiii] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2268819.stm
[xxxiv] http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/02/05/sprj.irq.powell.transcript/
[xxxv] http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/03/21/sprj.irq.war.main/index.html
[xxxvi] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2738089.stm
[xxxvii] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2942449.stm
[xxxviii] http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/10/28/mission.accomplished/
[xxxix] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2005/04/25/GR2005042500945.html
[xl] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3422809.stm
[xli] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56111-2004Feb19.html
[xlii] Fournier, Ron. Applebee’s America. Simon and Schuster Publishing, 2006. New York, NY.
[xliii] http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/10/13/debate.main/index.html
[xliv] http://edition.cnn.com/2004/LAW/08/31/dean.swiftboat.book/index.html
[xlv] Fournier, Ron. Applebee’s America. Simon and Schuster Publishing, 2006. New York, NY.